THE PEOPLE AND THEIR CULTURE

CUSTOMS.

THE INFLUENCE OF WESTERN EDUCATION and the impact of modern concepts about social equality and justice, individual freedom and the place of religion in life have brought about in the course of the last half a century remarkable changes in the customs, manners, beliefs and the general sense of values of Indian society. The pace of change has been further accelerated and its direction crystallized by the operation of the new economic forces which as a result of the introduction of mechanical power have revolutionized the methods of production, given rise to large concentrations of population in urban areas and by the very nature of the conditions of work created by them helped in cutting across that social isolation which a caste system based purely on birth had imposed in the rigidly separated innumerable communal groups of which Indian society is made. As in every other sphere of life so also in social and religious matters, India has come out of a more or less static spell which had slowed down its vitality for a long duration and is at present passing through a period of striking transformation and transition. Examples of every phase of that evolutionary process, from the almost completely stagnent picture as presented by most of the backward classes and hill tribes to the stage of a degree of sophistication which attempts as complete a break from the past as possible are presented by the contemporary social panorama. The account given in the following pages has therefore to be related to the dynamics of transition, involving a little variation here and there in the completeness of its applicability. The details that are narrated would have as much a historical as a factual relevance and interest.

HINDU CUSTOMS.

THE MAJOR PART OF THE CUSTOMS OF THE HINDUS consist of ritualistic practices related to various religious ceremonies known as samskaras (sacraments). These ceremonies which principally consist of purifying rites are conducted under the directions, according to orthodox practice, of a Brahmin priest. Regarding the exact number of these samskaras there is a great divergence of views among the smrti writers. According to some, sixteen samskaras as they are nitya (usual) must be performed, and the rest twenty four as they are naimittika (special) ones are left to choice. They are observed by almost all castes above those that were traditionally considered to be the lowest. The chief of these customary rituals are those at birth, thread-girding, marriage, pregnancy and death. The garbhadhana (girl-wife's coming of age) ceremony, which used to be once performed separately and with great pomp as girls were than married at an early age, has now become a part of the marriage rite and receives scant attention.

PREGNANCY AND BIRTH.

THE PROSPECT OF CHILD BIRTH is watched with anxiety and eagerness by the family and in her first pregnancy the young wife is treated with great care and tenderness both at her parent's and at her husband's. Her dohale (longings), as they are believed to foreshadow and influence the characteristics and sex of the child, are fondly noticed and promptly satisfied by the family elders. She has to observe a number of taboos. Birthmarks and congenital defects in the child are often ascribed to the neglect of the dohale (longings) and the non-observance of taboos. Because of her delicate condition she is considered particularly open to attacks of evil spirits and following the current folklore she complies with a number of do's and don't. The grhyasutras prescribe for the benefit of the pregnant woman a number of observances of magico-religious nature and believers in the efficacy of vedic samskaras follow them to a varying extent.

For her first confinement the young wife generally goes to her parent's house. At the inception labour she takes to the lying in room which has been swept clean and kept warm, dim-lighted and free from draught. A midwife generally known to the family and engaged beforehand is called in and she attends the girl from then onwards for ten or more days.

After delivery, the position of the woman is not changed for sometime. After a while the midwife ties the childs umbilical cord with a cotton thread, a few inches away from navel and severs it with a knife. She touches with ashes the spot where the navel cord was cut and rubs the mother and child with turmeric and oil, bathes them in hot water, and swatches the child in cloth bandages. The after-birth is put in an earthen pot with a pice, a little turmeric and redpowder and buried in a hole in the mother's room. The mother is given butter and myrrh pills, and the child is dosed with a few drops of castor oil and honey. Myrrh-incense is burnt and waved all over and the mother is purified by burning Embelia Ribes, ova and balantsepa in the room. She, with her child beside her, is laid on the cot under which a small fire of live coal is set. Near the door of the room an earthen pot of cow's urine is set with a nim branch floating on it. That no evil spirit may come in with them, all visitors sprinkle a few drops of cow's urine on their feet before entering the room. The balantina, the mother as she is called for some days after parturition, is on special diet such as fine rice, butter, pepper, and warm water for the first two days and may revert to the usual one on the third day. A lamp is kept burning during the night. Next morning, after rubbing them with turmeric and oil, both mother and child are bathed, the mother is purified with visesa (frank-incense), and the child is given a dose of caster oil. The mother takes some nim juice before meal.

On the third and fourth days, beyond bathing the mother in hot water, no ceremony takes place.

As a rule all rural communities are particular about the fifth or sixth day worship, as those days are believed to be full of danger to the new born child. They share the common belief that convulsive seizures and most other forms of disease are the work of spirits. They think that only by worshipping " Mother Fifth " and " Sixth " can the child be saved from the attacks of evil spirits which are said to hover about the lying-in-room lying in wait. Elderly matrons in the house take the utmost care to keep a light always burning in the lying-in-room, day and night, especially from the fifth to the tenth day, and during that time never leave the mother alone in her room. On the fifth day a few friends and relations are asked to dine at the house. In the lying-in-room a betelnut, a sword [The configuration varies according to the community. Marathas include a sword in the Panchavi worship.] or sickle are set on a low stool and so are flowers and sandal-paste in the name of Pancavi (Mother-Fifth). The mother bows before the goddess with the child in her arms and prays Mother Fifth to save the child from the attacks of evil spirits. On the sixth day, a blank sheet of paper and a reed pen and ink are set on stool and Satvai or Mother Sixth is worshipped with the same details as Mother Fifth, and a few friends are feasted. The mother is held impure for ten days and no one except the midwife touches her. The family observes suher (ceremonial impurity) for the period. On the eleventh day, mother and child are given a purificatory bath, their clothes washed and the whole house is cleaned. The walls and the ground of the lying-in-room are smeared with a mixture of cowdung and water, the bathing place is washed and turmeric, red-powder, flowers and lighted lamp are laid near it. The midwife is presented with a lugade and bodice and money. The mother is cleansed from impurity by a sprinkle of tulasi water and men change their sacred threads.

With the spread of education, the practice of sending women to nursing homes and lying in hospitals is becoming more and more popular and many of the old customs described above which used to be observed at home are not observed. The woman stays in the hospital for ten days, is looked after by qualified doctors and nurses and is generally discharged on the tenth or eleventh day.

Naming Ceremony.

On the evening of the twelfth, women friends are asked to the house, musicians play, the child is cradled and the naming ceremony or barse is celebrated [ For the detailed description of the barse ceremony see Poona District Gazetteer (1954) p. 85.]. The karnavedh (piercing of the ear-lobes) ceremony may take place the same morning or may be postponed to the sixth or twelfth month. If a boy is subject to a vow, his right nostril is bored and a gold ring put into it.

The caula or cudakarma (the first cutting of the hair on the child's head) ceremony has a place in the Hindu samskaras, but its observance is not now much in vogue except among the more backward people.

THREAD-GIRDING.

THE THREAD-GIRDING CEREMONY or munja as it is popularly known is prescribed for all Hindus claiming a place in the first three varnas (caste groups). In essence it is a purificatory rite initiating a boy to brahmacaryasrama (stage of student-hood).

A kumara (boy) usually undergoes the upanayana or mounji-bandhana (thread-girding) at the age of eight or after, eighth, eleventh and twelfth years from birth being considered the proper time for the ceremony. The muhurtas (proper time) for thread-girding occur in the five months of Magha, Phalguna, Caitra, Vaisakha and Jyestha. In any one of these months the astrologer chooses a lucky day, paying special attention to the month in which, the constellation under which, and the hour of the day at which, the boy was born.

Preparations.

Preparations begin a few days before the threadgirding day. Drummers and pipers to play at the ceremony are engaged. The house is cleaned and white washed. A booth is raised in front of the house, and its posts are ornamented with plantain trees, mango twigs and flowers. On the werstern side of the booth an altar known as bahule is raised facing east. Invitation letters marked with kunku are sent to friends and kinspeople. Of them the more intimate ones give by turns, a week or two prior to the lucky day of the ceremony congratulatory feasts called gadagners or kelavans to the boy and his family. A day or two before the thread-girding, an aksat (invitation processing) consisting of the boy's parents and the family priest, first visit the local temple of Ganapati and pray to the god to be present at the ceremony with his two consorts Rddhi and Siddhi; they then go to the houses of select relatives and friends to give them personal invitation.

Early morning of the lucky day, musicians start playing on the drum and pipe and one of the priests sets up the ghatika (water-clock). Then starts ghana ceremony. Two musals (pestles) are tied together with a new bodice cloth and a basket filled with wheat is set before the boy and his parents. Not less than five suvasinis (married women whose husbands are living) take the pestles in their hands, set them upright in the basket, and move them up and down as if to pound the wheat in the basket. They sign songs while music plays. A suvasini takes a handful of corn and grinds it in a hand mill to the handle of which a bodice cloth is tied.

Prior to the ceremony of upanayana proper, the usual propitiatory rites are gone through with the same procedural details as before the performance of a auspicious samskara. Ganapati or Ganesa and the Matrkas (Mothers) are worshipped, and punyahavacana (the holy-day blessing) ceremony is performed. This is the time for near relations to give presents to the boy and his parents. After this, twenty-seven betelnuts representing the nandis (joy-bringing guardians) and six betelnuts representing the booth-guardians (mandapa-devatas) are placed in a winnowing fan and worshipped with flowers and kunku. The winnowing fan is carried into the house and laid in the family god-room. Brahmanas, men and women, are fed and presented with money. Next the boy and his mother sit on two pats (low stools) and amidst song and music are bathed by a band of young married women. Arati (lighted lamps) is waved before them, and they go into the house. The ceremony of shaving the boy's head, except some locks and the top knot follows. The women of the family then roll ladus (sweet balls) and coins down the boy's head into a handkerchief spread over his knees and they are given to the barber who retires with a present of a new turban or a kerchief, rice, betel and cocoanut. The boy is again bathed and taken to the dining hall. Boys called batus, girt with the sacred thread but not married, are seated in a row and served with food. They eat, and the boy's mother sitting in front of the boys and setting her son on her lap feeds him and herself eats from the same plate.

Matrbhojana.

This is called matrbhojana (the mother's meal). It is the last time when the boy and his mother eat from the same plate. As soon as the mother's meal is over the boy is taken to the barber who shaves all the locks that were left on his head except the top-knot. The boy is bathed and made ready for the upanayana ceremony.

As the lucky moment draws near, the friends and kinspeople asked to the ceremony meet at the house and take their seats in the booth. The father sits on a pat placed on the vedi with his face to the east, while the boy stands before him facing west, and the priests hold between them a curtain marked with a vermilion svastika (lucky cross). The boy's sister stands behind the boy with a lighted lamp and a cocoanut in her hands. The priests recite the manglastakas (lucky verses) and guests throw akstas (rice mixed with kunku) at the boy and his father. At the proper muhurta (lucky moment), the priests stop chanting, the musicians redouble their noise, the curtain is pulled to the north and the boy lays his head on his father's feet. The father blesses him and seats him on his right. Pan, perfume and rosewater are distributed among the guests who then withdraw, usually receiving a present of a cocoanut each. It is now getting customary for the guests to make some present to the batu (boy) on this occasion.

Upanayana.

The upanayana ritual now begins. The priest and other Brahmins throw aksata over the boy's head and seat him on a pat to the father's right. A sthandila (earthen altar) is traced in front of the father, blades of darbha (sacred grass) are spread over it and a homa (sacrificial fire) is kindled on it. The priest daubs a cotton string in oil and turmeric, ties it round the boy's waist and gives him a langoti (loin-cloth) to wear. He then rolls a yellow panca (short waist-cloth) round his waist and a white one round his shoulders. Another cotton string daubed with oil and turmeric and a bit of deer skin passed into it, is hung on the left shoulder of the boy in the manner of a sacred thread. Offerings of ajya (ghee), sesamum, and seven kinds of samidhas (sacred fuel sticks) are made to the sacrificial fire. The boy is made to pass between the sacrificial fire and his father, sip three acamanas and repeat texts. He then goes back between the fire and his father and takes his seat.

The kumar (boy) now with folded hands approaches the acarya (preceptor-priest) and makes a request to initiate him into brahmacaryasrama (stage of studenthood). The acarya grants his request, hands over to him a consecrated yajnopavita (sacred thread) and a danda (staff) of palas and gives him general instructions as to how to acquire knowledge. The acarya then takes the kumar out to see the sun and makes him repeat a prayer to the sun.

The principal sacrifice of the ceremony is then gone through. The acarya makes four offerings of samidha (sacred fuel sticks) to the fire and then the kumar makes an offering of one samidha and then wipes off his face thrice with words purporting "I anoint myself with lustre and may Agni and Indra bestow on me insight, offspring and vigour.". The acarya concludes the sacrifice with the final oblations, and sprinkles sacred water over the head of the kumar and towards all directions. The acarya and the kumar both then stand and offer prayer to Yajnadevata (sacrificial god). The kumar bends his knees, embraces the teacher's feet and requests him to recite the Gayatri (sacred verse) and the acarya recites pada (syllable) by pada the Gayatri verse and makes the kumar repeat it syllable by syllable. The acarya then advises the student how to behave in his career of studentship, and tells him of the rules and observances to be followed by a bramhacari (student).

Money presents are made for the priests, who then bless the "student" and the father.

In the evening the bhiksavala (begging procession consisting of relatives and friends) goes to the temple of Ganapati with music and fireworks etc. The boy who is attended by his priest bows before the god and the procession returns home. The boy is then seated near the altar, the priest sits near him, and places a rovali (bamboo basket) or a sup (winnowing fan) before him. The mother of the boy comes and stands before him near the altar. The boy says to her in Sanskrit, "Bhavati bhiksam dehi (Lady, give me alms) ", and holds the bamboo basket before her. The mother blesses him and puts sweet balls, rice and coco-kernel into the basket. Other married women follow her example; the boy repeats the same words to each, and each presents him with sweet balls or money. The contents of the bamboo basket go to the priest who gives part of the sweetmeats to the boy and keeps the rest for himself.

Medha-janana.

The last rite of the upanayana ceremony is medha-janana A small square earthen mound is raised and a pales branch is planted in it. The kumar pours water round the plant, prays Medha, the goddess of mind, to give him knowledge and wealth.

The upanayana ceremony often used to last for as many as four days in olden times. Now, however, it is generally only a one day affair. At the end as at beginning of the ceremony the "betelnut Ganapati" and the "metal pot Varuna " are invoked and then bowed out, and the back of the sup (winnowing fan) is beaten with a stick to show that the ceremony is over and that it is time for friends and kinsfolk to leave. The boy is now a bramhacari (an unwed student) and from now on for some years should learn the vedas at the feet of his guru and completing his study, undergo the samavartana (return) ceremony. But, according to the present custom the samavartana or the soda munja ceremony follows immediately or very soon after the upanayana, The boy discards the munj (triple sacred-grass waistcord) and his langoti (loincloth), puts on a silk-bordered waistcloth, a coat, a shoulder-cloth, a jari cap, and a pair of shoes, takes an umbrella, and sets out as if on a journey to Kashi (Benaras). The priest or the boy's maternal uncle as may be the custom meets him on the way and promises to give him his daughter in marriage so that the boy may marry and become a grhastha (householder).

MARRIAGE.

ACCORDING TO HINDU PHILOSOPHY, marriage is among the most significant and most sacred obligations of human life. In the orthodox Hindu view, marriage is not a contract but a sacrament which is indissoluble; the union represented by marriage must be strictly confined to members of the same caste and even the same sub-caste; within the caste limitation, it must not take place between members of the same gotra or something like an enlarged family clan. There must be at least a minimum degree of astrological agreement, as determined by the position of the stars, between the horoscopes of the would-be bride and the bridegroom. Marriages must be solemnized only during particular months of the year and on particular days and at particular hours which may be indicated to be auspicious according to the horoscopes. Apart from these religious injunctions and inhibitions, there came to be built up over many generations, in connection with marriages, very elaborate social customs and practices which became an integral and indispensable part of the whole ceremony. The celebrations lasted generally for a week and often longer. Such prolonged festivities were in keeping with, and probably the consequence of, the leisurely atmosphere of the spacious days before the advent of the industrial revolution when life did not present many complex problems.

With the intellectual ferment and spirit of questioning generated by the emphasis on reason and scientific analysis in modern education, and in the context of the tremendous tempo and tensions of the industrial age," many of the old institutions as well as social customs and practices appeared to be both unfair and insipid and contrary to the new values which were taking the place of the old ones in the minds of the educated people. Public opinion gradually but unmistakably underwent a change which was reflected in the new attitude to social reform and in the new social laws enacted by popular legislatures. Child marriage has been abolished. The justice and the desirability of incorporating a small degree of contractual content even in holy wedlock was recognized and divorce under certain extreme circumstances is now permitted, though actual dissolutions of marriages consequent on such permission are very infrequent. Freedom to marry outside the caste had been conceded by law long ago. But it is only recently that hostility to such marriages has lost its former agressiveness and unbearable sting. Marriages of persons belonging to different sub-castes of the same caste have now become a routine affair. Marriages of persons belonging to different castes have eased to create much of a sensation or lead to social ostracism. Not that such intermarriages have become a common occurrence. They are still comparatively rare. But the critics' angle of vision in regard to them has now more the substance of indifference and apathy rather than of bitter antagonism as in the past. Beyond rousing some curiosity and probably some inconsequentional criticism, they have ceased to produce, at least in urban areas, any grave repercussions to the detriment of the marrying couple or their relatives.

THE MARRIAGE CUSTOMS of the so-called higher and lower caste groups among Hindus do not differ in important details. In case of the former the service is conducted according to Vedic and in the latter according to Pauranic ritual. Following is a description of the usual ceremonies which obtain among so-called higher Hindu castes in general and among Marathas in particular.

Marriage rules.

According to the orthodox way of life, rules of endogamy prohibit marriage outside the varna or jati (caste or sub-caste); rules of exogamy prohibit marriage between sapindas, sagotras and sapravaras. Brahmins claim gotras and pravaras and abide by gotra and pravara exogamy. Marathas (assal) claim kuli (stock) or devak (marriage guardians) as well as gotras, but among them sameness of gotra is not necessarily a bar to marriage, the chief restrictions in this respect being sameness of kuli and devak. Many non-Brahmin communities have kuli, devak and surnames as exogamous divisions. The prohibited degrees of kindred for marriage beyond the agnates vary-according to the custom of the community. As regards cross-cousin unions, except that of the brother's daughter with the sister's son, which is tolerated or even preferred among many, other types are generally disallowed. Marriage with a wife's sister is allowed and a brother may marry his brother's wife's sister. Polygamy, which was once allowed and practised, is now prohibited by law. [Social usage in relation to these marriage rules is being considerably affected by recent legal enactments, namely (1) the Child Marriage Restraint Act XIX of 1929, as amended by (Act 19 of 1938) which prohibits marriages of boys under 18 yeas of age, and girls under 14 years of age; (2) the Hindu Marriage Disabilities Removal Act (XXVIII of 1946), which validates marriages between parties (a) belonging to the same gotra or pravara or (b) belonging to different sub-division of the same caste; and now (3) the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 which abrogates and modifies all the past laws.]

Marriage Settlement.

Marriage settlements may be of five different types. In (1) salankrta kanyadana, the bride's father, besides the ornaments he gives to his daughter, stands all the marriage expenses, including those on journeys of both the sides. In (2) kanyadana the expenses of the bride's father are much restricted. In the (3) varapaksa-vadhupaksa form, the parties bear their own expenses, stand each other's manapana (exchange of honorific gifts) and bridegroom's party gives a rasabhoga (feast) to all villagers. In the (4) hunda form of marriage, the girl's father pays a bridegroom-price to the boy's father, while in the (5) deja form the proposal of marriage comes from the boy's father who has to pay a deja (bride-price) to the girl's father.

Marriage Ceremonies.

The marriage consists of the following ceremonies: -

Magani.

Magani (proposal).-Among the poor and backward communities it is customary for the boy's father or a near relation to initiate the marriage negotiations while, in the case of the well-to-do they are usually initiated by the girl's party. If there be no objections on the count of marriage rules, the two fathers consult an astrologer or the family priest over the compatibility of the birth-stars of their wards. That dignitary favouring the proposed union, they discuss and come to a mutual understanding about the marriage terms. The auspicious day for a betrothal is fixed and a betelnut is broken and distributed among the assembled as a token of the marriage settlement.

Sakharpuda.

Sakharpuda or Sakarsadi.-On the appointed day the boy's father or a close relative of his, with kins-people and friends, visits the girl's house to present her with a sadi or lugade and bodice and an ornament befitting his means. Five suvasinis (unwindowed married women) mark the girl's forehead with kunku, deck her with the ornaments and present the dress, and this marks the sakharpuda ceremony. The guests are treated to a dinner at which puranpoli is served.

Tila.

Tila.-A few days later, the girl's kins-people pay a visit to the boy's for the tila ceremony and present him with a pagote or rumal (turban), an uparne (shoulder-cloth) and a gold ring. The boy's forehead is marked with a tila-the auspicious sign- and the girl's close relations are presented with "turbans of honour". These two ceremonies-sakharpuda and tila- constitute the betrothal.

Patrika pujana.

Patrika-pujana.-The priests of the bride and the bride-groom write on separate pieces of paper the auspicious moments for the marriage and the turmeric rubbing, as well as the names of the bride and the bridegroom. Ganapati is worshipped and the bride's priest hands over the paper written by him to the bridegroom's with a blessing, and vice versa.

Aksat.

Aksat.-The family gods and the gods of the local place, generally Ganapati and some goddess, are specifically invited to the marriage by placing a few rice grains before them and praying for their presence. With the well-to-do it is customary to take out a procession, with relatives and friends, and headed by drum-beaters, pipers etc. for giving forward invitation to the local god and goddess.

Ghana.

Ghana.-This ceremony is performed in the marriage pandals of both the bride and bridegroom. A turmeric root, some wheat, and a betel-nut are tied in a piece of new cloth to the handle of a jate (grinding stone) by married unwidowed women. Next the women grind some wheat and turmeric by the hand-mill, singing songs. Two wooden pestles are then tied together with a piece of new cloth containing a turmeric root, a betelnut and a little wheat. Some wheat is put into a bamboo basket, and pounded with these pestles. The provisions for the marriage are supposed to be prepared after this ceremony has been performed, but in practice this rule is not scrupulously observed. The jate (grinding stone) used for this turmeric grinding must not be used again till the marriage ceremony is over.

Halad and Telavan.

Halad and Telavan: A party of suvasinis (married unwidowed women) from the boy's house go with music to the girl's house taking turmeric paste, articles of dress, etc. The girl is sprinkled over with oil by a washer-woman, and then the woman selected for the turmeric rubbing rubs her with turmeric paste, and she is bathed. Next the girl is presented with a new yellow sadi or lugade and bodice and ornaments which she puts on. What remains of the turmeric paste and oil is taken with music to the bridegrooms'. The boy is rubbed with it by the same woman who rubbed the girl and he is bathed. A yellow dress is presented to him by the girl's father, which he has to wear when he starts for the marriage.

Mandapa pratistha and Devakapratistha.

Mandapa-pratistha and Devakapratistha: On the marriage day or on the day previous a number of propitiatory rites are gone through both at the bride's and the bridegroom's. They consist of-(1) Ganapati-pujana, (2) Punyahavacana, (3) Nandi-sraddha and (4) Grhamakha. Of these, the grhamakha may be performed even after the marriage ceremony is over.

A spot in the marriage booth is cow-dunged and on the spot suvasinis trace a rangoli (quartz powder) square and inside arrange three pats (low wooden stools) in a line and cover them with rich velvet or red woollen carpet. The bride or bridegroom, and the parents of the party bathe, dress in rich clothes and seat themselves on the pats facing east. Next, if any samskaras (ceremonies) which ought to have been performed, performed on the boy or the girl but were not performed, they are made to undergo a prayascitta (penance). The father of the boy or the girl then says "I am going to marry my son/daughter named - in order to be free from the debt to gods and ancestors, and to continue the performance of righteous deeds, and to propagate offspring fit to perform the deeds". The ceremonies of Ganpatipujana (worship of Ganapati), Punyahavacana (holy-day blessing) and Nandisraddha are then performed.

Veer.

Veer: This ceremony is performed by only those Marathas in whose families one or more celebrated warriors have lost their lives on the battle-field. An elderly male member belonging to a kul different from that of the party to be married is made to take part of the veer (warrior). He is taken with music to the bank of river. The seven Apsaras (water nymphs) are worshipped, and the Veer is also worshipped and presented with a dress. The Veer puts on the dress and holds a sword in his hand. He is then brought back to the house accompanied by music. On his way back, red powder is constantly thrown on his body. At the entrance to the house, rice mixed with curds and a cocoanut are waved near the person of the Veer. Next, the sword in his hand is taken and placed near the house-gods. The Veer has to remain in the house till the end of the marriage ceremonies.

Anusthan.

Anusthan.-In order that the marriage may pass off without any inauspicious occurrence, prayers in propitiation of Ganapati, the family deity, Mrtyunjaya and the ill-favoured stars of the party are held through the medium of priests. These prayers commence on the day of the installation of the devak and continue till the end of the marriage. Sometimes the prayers are offered before the commencement of the marriage.

Vagdan.

Vagdan.-This ceremony takes place in the pandal at the girl's house. The boy's father accompanied by a party of men and women goes sometimes with music, to the girl's house. After they are seated, the girl, dressed in rich clothes, is brought and seated on a pat. The boy's father gives into her hand a cocoanut and a betel-leaf packet and says thrice to her father "I shall accept your daughter in marriage for my son". The girl's father says thrice to him "Accept". Both of them then worship each other and the ceremony is over.

Gadagner.

Gadagner or Kelvan.-This ceremony takes place, both at the boy's and the girl's house. It consists of offering cooked food to the family god and then feasting relations and friends. After dinner is over, the boy and the girl are presented with articles of dress by their respective family members and close friends.

Varadhava.

Varadhava.-When the time for marriage draws nears, the bridegroom is dressed in the yellow dress presented to him by the girl's father at the time of the halad (turmeric-rubbing) ceremony. His brow is decked with the basing (marriage coronet), his left cheek is touched with lamp-black, and he carries in his hand a dagger or poniyard with a lemon stuck on its point. He must not part with the dagger till the marriage is over. He then rides a horse or is seated in a car. Musicians walk in front, and behind them walk all the men of the party, followed by the bridegroom. Behind the bridegroom walks his sister holding the sakundiva (lucky lamp) laid in a dish, and another woman follows her with a metal or earthen pot called senskara holding rice, betelnut and water, and covered with a mango branch and a cocoanut set on a heap of rice in a bamboo basket. Other ladies and women servants follow. The party halt at the place (generally a temple) fixed upon for performing the simantapujana (worship at the boundary). Then, the bridegroom's brother or a male relative rides the groom's horse and with music goes to the girl's house to announce the bridegroom's arrival. For acting this part he is called varadhava (groom's messenger) and is treated to a dinner and presented with a turban by the girl's father. Next, the varadhava goes back with the girl's party to where the boy has stopped. The boy is worshipped by the girl's father (simantapujana) and the combined party starts for the girl's house for the marriage. On reaching the bride's house, one or two suvasinis pour water on the hoofs of the horse on which the bridegroom has come. The bridegroom then dismounts and the priest throws jire (cumin seed) on the booth. The bride's mother meets him at the entrance of the marriage booth with a dish holding two wheat flour lamps, waves small rice balls and wheat flour lamps round the bridegroom, throws the rice balls to one side and lays the wheat flour lamps at the bridegroom's feet; another suvasini pours a dish full of water mixed with lime and turmeric on his feet. The bridegroom presents the woman with a sadi or lugade and bodice, the bride's father hands the bridegroom a cocoanut and leads him by the hand to a place prepared for him near the bahule (altar). The guests are welcomed to their seats in the marriage hall where musical entertainments are kept in progress. The family priest is busy watching the time by his water-clock (ghatikapatra) and noting the approach of the auspicious moment for marriage.

Gauriharapuja

Gauriharapuja: In the meanwhile, a pata (rectangular stone slab) and a varavanta (cylindrical shaped curry stone) are placed near the house gods, pictures of Gauri and Hara are drawn over the slab with turmeric powder and nearby a dish filled with rice grains is placed to represent Indrani. The girl bathes, puts on a new lugade and bodice, worships the Gaurihar and Indranl, and sits there till the wedding time.

Vivaha.

Vivaha (marriage): Shortly before the lucky moment arrives, the girl's father worships the paper on which the lucky moment for the marriage has been written. Next, two small heaps of rice grains are made near the marriage altar by the priest, and a cloth with a central cross mark is held between the heaps. The bridegroom stands on one heap facing west and the bride is brought and made to stand on the other heap facing east. A mixture of rice grains, jire (cumin seed) and sugar is given into the hands of both. The maternal uncles of the bride and bridegroom stand behind them with naked swords [A custom peculiar to Marathas and communities who call themselves Kshtriyas.] crossed over their heads. The priests stand on either side of the curtain and tell the pair to look at the lucky cross and pray to their family gods. The priests recite auspicious verses and throw rice (mixed with kunku) on both. One of the priests hands red rice to the guests, which they throw over the bride and the bridegroom at the end of each verse. When the auspicious moment arrives, the astrologer claps his hands, the singi (horn-blower) blows his horn, guns are fired and musicians play. The priests draw aside the curtain and the bride and bridegroom throw a little of the mixture of the rice grains, etc., over each other's heads. Next some mantras are repeated and they again throw rice over each other's heads thrice or five times.

Madhuparka.

Madhuparka: Next, the bride's father and mother sit on two low wooden stools in front of the bridegroom face to face; the father washes the feet of the boy and the mother pours water over them. The father then worships the bridegroom and pours madhuparka (honey and curds mixed together) over his hands. The bridegroom throws to the four points of the compass a few drops of the madhuparka and also sips a little of it. If the girl's father has former sons-in-law, the madhuparka is performed first on them and then on the bridegroom.

Kanyadan.

Kanyadan: Next, the hands of the bride and bridegroom are joined by the girl's father, a pot of bell metal is held under them by the priest and the girl's mother pours water with some coins in it over their clasped hands. This completes the kanyadan (girl-giving). The bride's father then presents the bridegroom with clothes, ornaments, vessels, etc. Next the priest sprinkles water over the couple, reciting mantras and the bride and bridegroom throw grains of rice over each other and put garlands round each other's neck. Suvasinis on the girl's side then seat the couple facing east and the girl is given a sadi or lugade, a bodice, an upper garment and a lucky necklace, all of which she puts on. The boy ties another lucky necklace round her neck and puts ornaments on her person. Ganapati is worshipped and money is distributed to Brahmans by both parties. The priest then worships five betelnuts and ties them into the upper garments of the bride and bridegroom. These betelnuts are thus kept separate till the marriage is over. The hems of their garments are then tied into a knot by the priest, blessings are invoked upon them by elderly persons on both sides, and the couple worship Laksmi, Indrani and Parvati.

The guests in the hall are presented with betelnut and betel-leaves, flowers and fragrant cotton sticks called phayas and take leave soon after the kanyadan is over.

Vivahahoma and Saptapadi.

Vivahahoma and Saptapadi: The vivahahoma (marriage sacrifice) is next performed on the bahule (marriage altar). The altar is a square the length of its sides being four, five, or seven times the span of the girl's hand. Its height is one cubit from the ground. It has steps and over it is raised a small canopy. It is decorated with plantain trees, flowers, leaves, etc. The bride and bridegroom are seated on two pats set on the altar, the bride on the bridegroom's lets. The bride's father stands near them, holding parched grains of rice, sesame seed, etc. The sacrificial fire is lit and fed with parched grains of rice, clarified butter, sesame seed, cotton sticks of palas (butea frondosa) or other samidhas (sacred wood) with an appropriate ritual. The bride's brother squeezes the bridegroom's ear and is presented with a garment. The couple then leave their seats, walk seven times from right to the left round the sacred fire,' and the saptapadi is over.

Kankans or marriage wristlets are then tied to the wrists of the couple, the knot of the hems of their garments untied and they are shown the Dhruva (Pole Star). Next they bow before the family gods and the day's proceedings are over. With the performance of the rites of panigrahana, going round the vivaha-homa and saptapadi, the Hindu marriage is considered to be final and irrevocable. The concluding ceremony is varat, the homeward return of the bridegroom with the bride in a procession. Varat may take place the same night or a day or two after. Till then the bridegroom stays at the bride's and is feasted and a number of popular ceremonies by way of marriage rejoicing follow.

Ambavan and Rukhavat.

Ambavan and Rukhavat : On the following morning women from the boy's house take ambavan (leavings of food, vegetables and roots mixed in water which is generally given to cattle) to the girl's house, and give it to the girl's mother as a jest. Then women from the girl's house take rukhavat or sweetmeats with music to the boy's house. The rukhavat consists of two kinds of dishes, one for show and one for use. The show-dishes contain sugar-coated betelnuts and sweet balls as large as or larger than unhusked cocoanuts; the dishes for use are of ordinary size and are prepared with great care. The rukhavat is sometimes taken to the boy's house at the time of his starting for the marriage. He is seated on a low stool set in a wheat square and the sweet dishes are arranged in rows about the stool. The bridegroom is presented with a turban, his brow is marked with vermilion to which grain is stuck, lights are waved about him by suvasinis and he is told to help himself to the dishes.

In the old days when boys and girls were married at a very young age, parents and other elders of the family derived considerable enjoyment by making the newly wedded bride and bridegroom pass through funny situations. With a considerable increase in the age of marriage of both boys and girls, the practice has almost completely disappeared.

Sunmukhadarshan.

Sunmukhadarsan: In the evening the boy's mother per- forms the ceremony of Sunmukhadarsan (seeing the daughter-in- law's face). The bride's mother accompanied by music and women friends, asks the bridegroom's mother to her house, whereupon, accompanied by her own kinswomen and friends, the family priest and music, the bridegroom's mother returns the call, taking bamboo baskets, sesame seed, gram balls, betelnuts, cocoanut kernels, dates, a lugade or sadi, a bodice, ornaments, sweetmeats and fruit. At the girl's the priest worships the betel nut Ganapati and the waterpot Varuna, and the boy's mother dresses the girl in the clothes she has brought and sweetens her mouth with sugar.

Airani.

Airani or Zal: It is a ceremony of presenting airani to the boy's mother by the girl's father. A piece of cloth is spread in a big bamboo basket, and 16 dry dates, 18 cocoanut kernels, 16 turmeric lamps (a big one surrounded by 15 smaller ones), 16 betelnuts, cooked food, fruits, coins and 2 jars tilled with water with gold in them, are set upon the cloth. This is called airani. The girl's father worships, first the boy's parents and his kinsfolk, and then Umamaheswar who is supposed to be present in the airani. Next, he presents the airani to the boy's mother by pouring water on her hand.

The airani is then set on the heads of the nearest male and female relations of the boy and they are presented with articles of dress. When this is over, the girl is seated on the laps of the boy's parents and of his relations and friends. On this day the girl's parents have to fast till this ceremony is over.

Varat.

Varat: After the airani is over, the bride and bridgroom go into the god-room, bow to the gods and to their parents, and start in procession for the boy's house. On reaching there, an image of Laksmi made of wheat flour is worshipped, milk is offered to the goddess and the bridegroom's mother first makes the boy and then the girl drink some of the milk. The girl is then given a new name, which is told to the party assembled. Sugar, betelnut, betel-leaves are distributed and the party disperses. Next the girl and the boy's mother are served food on one plate from which they feed one another, and the ceremony ends.

Devakotthapana.

Devakotthapana or the unshrining of the devak, is the closing rite of the marriage. It is performed on the 2nd, 4th, 5th 7th. 8th or 10th day of marriage. The details are the same as are observed in installing the devak. When it is over, the priest and other Brahmans are worshipped, feasted and presented with articles of dress and money.

Marathas and other non-Brahmin communities give two sorts of dinners to their marriage guests, godi (sweet) and khatti (sour). The godi feast (a feast of sweet dishes without any flesh) is given before and the khatti (which chiefly consists of flesh dishes) after the devakotthapana ceremony.

Many of the ceremonies described above have either ceased to be performed or are performed in a very attenuated manner at the present time. During the last twenty-five or thirty years, conditions of life and thought have enormously changed. There has been a considerable spread of education and reorientation of values. The age of marriage of boys and girls has appreciably risen. The economy of the country has undergone a transformation, resulting in increased urbanization, overcrowding in cities and a much faster tempo of day to day working life. The old elaborate and leisurely ritual, whether religious or social, connected with an event like a marriage is found to have no relevance in the altered circumstances. Attempts have been made to rationalize and abridge the whole ceremonial. What is described as the Vedic form of marriage has now come to be evolved and has become very common, particularly among the educated classes. It confines itself to religious rites which are absolutely essential according to the Hindu concept of Dharma to solemnize a marriage and does not take more than about an hour and a half to complete. Only very near relatives and close personal friends are invited to be present at the ceremony. The social part of the function is generally confined to the giving of a dinner or a reception to which is invited a wider circle of relatives and friends. More often than not the whole festivity is finished in a day.

FUNERAL.

HINDUS GENERALLY CREMATE THEIR DEAD. When a person is on the point of death, his son or his wife lays the dying man's head on his or her right knee and lets a few drops of water fall into his mouth. A small piece of gold may also be put into the dead mouth, and after an hour or two when friends and neighbours have come the dead body is bathed in water heated on a hearth set in front of the house. To carry the body a ladder-like bier is made of two poles, six or seven feet long, with three or four small cross pieces. Two new earthern pots, a large one for water and a small one for fire, gulal (red powder), betel leaves and a cloth about seven and a half feet long are bought from the market or village cloth shop. Cowdung cakes and fire-wood are sent to the burning ground which is generally on the river bank. [In several places the municipality makes arrangements to provide a hand-cart to carry the dead body and its use for that is not uncommon.] Except the face the body is covered with a new waist-cloth and a cord is passed several times round the body to secure the cloth firmly. Betel leaves and gulal (red powder) are sprinkled over it and a basil leaf is put in the mouth and some rice, a copper coin and the quarter of a cake are laid beside the body. Four kinsmen of the deceased bear the body and the son baths and walks in front carrying the fire pot on a triangular frame fastened to a sling. When they reach the burning ground they raise a pile of four layers of cowdung cakes. They then take off the waistcloth, cut the thread tied round the wrist and loosen the loincloth. The body is laid on the pyre and is covered with other layers of cakes. When the mouth is being covered the son pours a little water into it. The son sets fire to the pyre, bathes, brings water in the large earthern pot, and stands at the head of the pyre. Another person comes and with a small stone makes a hole in the earthern pot. As the water spouts from the pot, the son goes five times round the pyre and at the end throws the pot on the ground at the head of the pyre and calls aloud, beating his mouth with the back of his hand. He then goes and sits among the other men without touching them. After a short time the sound made by the bursting of the skull is heard and the chief mourner and others, at least the four bearers, bathe. The stone with which the earthen pot was pierced is kept with great care somewhere in the burning place and the funeral party returns home. In the evening after the funeral, a lighted lamp is set on the spot where the deceased breathed his last.

On the morning of the third day the son with some friends and relatives goes to the burning ground and from the spot where the body was burnt he takes the ashes except one bone which he puts aside and throws them into the nearest river. If he is rich, he gathers the bones from the ashes and afterwards takes them to a holy river. When the rakhsavadane (ash-gathering) is over, the son and the other mourners bathe and return home. On the tenth day all the household bathe and wash their clothes in the river; and the son shaves his moustache and bathes. While a Brahman recites verses the son washes with cow-urine, the jiv-khada (life-stone) and the bone he kept, prepares ten balls and three little banners made of ochre-coloured cloths, each tied to a stick. The Brahman is given some money, shoes, and in old days sometimes even a cow, presents which are supposed to help the deceased on his way to heaven. After preparing the offering balls the son sits at a distance so that crows may come and eat them. If a crow touches them soon after they have been laid out, the deceased is supposed to have died with no unfulfilled wish, if crows do not touch the balls, the son and his relations promise to fulfil the dead person's wish, and when the promise is given the crows are believed to fall on the offering and eat it. After this is over, the son and the other mourners bathe and return home.

On the eleventh day, the family which since the death is supposed to have been impure, is cleansed by using the five products (pancagavya) of the cow. On the twelfth day a highly complex ritual known as sapindi sraddha is performed. By virtue of this ritual, the deceased who has been a pret (ghost) so far changes into pitr (father or guardian spirit) and unites with the mourners' pitamaha (grandfather) and prapitamaha (great grandfather). On the thirteenth day the sraddha is performed in the name of the dead and friends and kinsfolk are treated to a dinner. The anniversary of the death is kept by a sraddha, when friends and relatives are asked to dine at the house. The deceased is remembered every year in mahalaya-paksa, the dark half of Bhadrapada, on a day corresponding to the day of decease.

It must be added that the rites described above are not strictly observed in every detail now a days by many people, particularly in the educated sections of the community. There is a distinct tendency to reduce the funeral ritual and to dispense with the sraddha ceremony.

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