THE PEOPLE AND THEIR CULTURE

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES.

THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE ORTHODOX HINDU is mainly governed by the tradition of the caste-group to which one belongs, though the influence of even that tradition is tending to diminish appreciably with the spread of education. Of the several sections of Brahmans, Deshasthas and Konkanasthas are found in considerable number in Kolhapur. Deshasthas belong to two main classes. Rgvedis and Yajurvedis. Rgvedis are divided into Smartas and Vaisnavas, and Yajurvedis into followers of the Sukla (white) and of the Krsn (black) Yajurved. Madhyandins who are found in small numbers in all parts of Kolhapur are a sub-division of Yajurvedi Deshasthas and have two sections, Vajasaneyas and Kanvas. They are said to have got the name because while other Deshasthas performed their sandhya (twilight worship) at sunrise they as a rule performed it at mid-day. Konkanasthas, who are next to Deshasthas in number are divided into Rgvedis, Asvalayans and Apastambas or Hiranyakesis. They belong to two sakhas (branches), Sakala and Taittiriya. The sutra (ritual) of the Sakala branch is that composed by the seer Asvalayana and that of the Taittiriya branch is that by the seer Hiranyakesi. As followers of Vedic observances these Brahmanas when they call themselves Apastambas or Rgvedis, it means their rites are regulated either by texts written by the sage Apastamba of Krsna Yajurveda or by the next of Rgveda.

Smartas are followers of Sankaracarya, the apostle of the doctrine that the soul and the universe are one; and Vaisnavas who are mainly Bhagvatas, that is, followers of the Bhagavata Purana, hold the doctrine that the soul and the universe are distinct. Those Deshasthas who are Vaisnavas are known as Madhva Brahmans or followers of Madhvacarya (A.D. 1238 to 1317) whose chief mission was to preach the reality and dependence of the universe composed of cit (souls) and acit (matter) upon the Supreme Soul (parmatma) God Visnu, and amala bhakti (pure devotion) to Visnu is the means of emancipation for the souls from the whirlpool of births and deaths and of enjoying the highest bliss that is their own. Besides the allegiance they owe to the Vedas and dharma-sutras and the faith they have in a particular religious sect, Brahmins worship a number of family gods and abide by some traditional beliefs. For instance, the family gods of Deshasthas are Ambabai of Kolhapur, Banshankari of Badami, Durga, Gajanana, Jogeshwari, Jotiba of Vadi-Ratnagiri in Kolhapur district, Khandoba of Jejuri in Poona district, Rama, Siva and Visnu. They worship many local and boundary gods, and many believe in witchcraft and soothsaying and lucky and unluckly omens. Marathas and Maratha-Kunbis who constitute a majority of the population worship all these gods and keep the usual fasts and festivals. Some aristocratic families of Marthas (kulin) claim a Ksatriya origin, wear a sacred thread and observe Vedic rituals.

In the religious practices of Hindus, devapuja i.e., worship plays a prominent part. Images of gods may be worshipped daily at home and in temples and on special festive occasions. In the house of a devout Hindu may be found a god-room or a specially assigned niche in the wall in which is kept a devhara (a handy shrine), or a courang (wooden stool) to accommodate small images of the family gods and goddesses and objects such as bana-linga (representing Mahadeo), Saligrama (representing Visnu); the sankha (conch) and cakra (discus) metallic stone (representing Durga), crystal for sun-worship, red stone (representing Ganesa) and padukas (foot-prints of Dutta the Preceptor). Taks (small embossed images representing the dead ancestors) are often grouped with other god-images in the devhara by backward communities.

Among the gods popularly worshipped in temples, the principal ones are Visnu under various names and in various avataras (incarnations), Siva in his various forms, Durga, Ganesa and Sun. The worship of these deities is called pahcayatana puja which is often performed in different arrangements, the deity the worshipper wants to give prominence to being kept in the middle and the pancayatana called after that deity. Of the temples dedicated to the ten avataras of Visnu those to Rama (with his consort Sita, three brothers and devotee Hanuman) and Krsna (with Radha) or Krsna as a child (Balkrsna) are pretty frequent. Vithoba or Vitthala with Rukmini, his consort, is another popular god with temples at many places. Worship of Datta (the Hindu Trinity) and reading of gurucaritra (biography of Datta the Preceptor) is sometimes followed as a cult and Datta temples are often believed to have special spirit-scaring or exercising attributes.

In the worship of Brahmanic images a highly systematised ritual of devapuja is followed which includes the sixteen upacaras (way of service) accompanied by appropriate mantras (text) adoring the deity. The sixteen upacaras so offered are: avahana (invocation) or svagata (welcome), asana (offering of the seat), padya (water for washing the feet), arghya (water respectfully offered for washing the hands), acamaniya (the water for sipping), snana (bath to be effected with five materials called pancamrta followed by pure water), vastra (clothing), yajnopavita (sacred thread), anulepana or gandh" (unguent), puspa (flowers), dipa (light), naivedya or upahara (food), namaskara (bow), pradaksina (going round from left to the right as a mark of respect) and visarjana or udvasana (ceremonial dismissal). Worship performed by non-Brahmin communities is comparatively much simple. On ordinary occasions, waving of on an incense stick and applying kunku to the deity constitute the worship. One who wants to be more elaborate, places some flowers, tulsi or bilva leaves, and fragments of durva grass on the idol, burns camphor, breaks a cocoanut, and waves incense stick and arati before it. This kind of worship is offered only on important holidays such as Nagapancami, Ganesacaturthi, etc. On minor holidays a cocoa-nut is broken and camphor is burnt before the local deity in worship. If it is a special occasion a naivedya (food offering) is made at the time of worship. Only the dish prescribed for the particular holiday or occasion is offered. It is placed on a small tray and placed before the god with a prayer, a flower placed on the god is thrown on it and then it is distributed among the members present.

The religious faith of the Hindu agriculturists and labourers, i.e., the rural population in general, is a curious mixture of animism and tenets of Hindu religion. They cannot tell whether they are Smarts or Bhagvats. Many of them are Varakaris. They worship all Brahmanic gods and goddesses, but their chief objects of worship are Bhairav, Bhavani, Bhairoba, Jakhai, Janai, Jokhai, Kalkai, Khandoba, Maruti, Metisai, Mhasoba, Mukai, Navalai, Phirangai, Satvai, Tukai, Vaghoba and Vetal. Bhairava who has two forms-Kala Bhairava and Bala Bhairava-is the usual village guardian, Kala Bhairava is shown as a standing man with two hands, a damaru in his right hand and a trident in his left. He is encircled by a serpant. Bala Bhairava lives in an unhewn stone covered with sendura (red-lead) mixed with oil. Bhavani (Parvati), the wife of Siva, is known by many names such as Phirangai, Tukai, etc. She shares with Bhairava the honour of being a village guardian. Bahiroba lives in an unhewn stone outside the village. Jakhai, Janai, Jokhai, Kalkai, Metisai, Mukai and Navlai are all local 'mothers' and according to the people's belief are unkindly forms of Bhavani, capable of doing much mischief with the help of their two attendants, Naikji and Birji. Khandoba, literally sword-father, guards the country as Bhairava guards the village. He drives away the evil which causes sickness. No class honours Khandoba so highly as Ramosis. Maruti, also called Hanuman, is a kindly god, the great saviour of those into whom evil spirits have entered. No village in the Deccan is without a Maruti, a rudely embossed monkey figure, sometimes within the village and sometimes without, but genersly near the gate. Mhasoba or Mhaskoba is perhaps the commonest and most widely feared of the local evil spirits. He lives in an unhewn stone coated with red-lead. Besides, to prevent his doing mischief, Mhasoba is worshipped by men who have a grudge to clear off or a wrong to avenge. They go to Mhasoba, name their enemy, and promise that if he ruins their enemy, they will give him a goat or a fowl. Satvai, or Mother Sixth, is the goddess of pregnant and lying-in women. Vaghoba lives in an unhewn stone, and if he is cared for, he guards the village herds from the attacks of tigers. Vetal is the leader of demons and evil spirits and also the patron of wrestlers and athletes. When a villager or one of his family is troubled by an evil spirit he tries to persuade Vetal with a promise of a goat or a fowl to order the spirit to give up the troubling.

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